Research Project: How to Evaluate the Place of Foreigners in Turkish Labor Markets: Part 2
Chapter 2: Employment of Foreigners in Türkiye: Sectors and Working Conditions
- Introduction
Türkiye hosts the largest refugee population in the world, hosting a large number of Syrians under temporary protection and refugees of other nationalities. In addition to Syrians under temporary protection in Türkiye, there are also refugees and asylum seekers from various countries of Africa, Afghanistan, Iraq and Iran. Beyond being a humanitarian issue, the phenomenon of migration also creates significant effects in social and economic fields. The concept of migration necessitates the development of cooperation mechanisms and the creation of strategic policies at national and international levels. This large population mobility has caused asylum seekers and refugees to play an important role in the employment structure in Türkiye. It is undeniable that foreigners under temporary protection and international protection in Türkiye create a supply potential for unskilled labor in the Turkish labor market.
In this article, the sectors in which asylum seekers and refugees mainly work and the working conditions they face will be discussed in the light of various data. Some of the data in question were prepared up-to-date, while the other part was obtained from the studies carried out in previous years. Investigations made in previous years help to evaluate the current situation. However, it is obvious that a detailed and multifaceted up-to-date study should be carried out on the participation of foreigners in the Turkish labor market and working conditions in Türkiye. There is a widespread belief that foreigners are the powerhouse of some sectors. Understanding the rate and nature of foreign employment in sectors such as ready-to-wear, textile, agriculture, construction, transportation and animal husbandry is also relevant to the policies and practices to be developed by the Republic of Türkiye regarding these sectors. For this reason, in the second part of the article series written for KAPDEM, a general picture of foreign employment in different fields and sectors is drawn. In this general table, general information about the difficulties faced by foreigners, working conditions and the nature of employment is also included.
- Overview of Foreign Employment
Foreigners in Türkiye mostly work informally. In sectors where unregistered employment is widespread, there is a great demand for asylum seekers and foreign labor under international temporary protection status. For this reason, it can be said that asylum seekers and refugees work intensively in the ready-to-wear and textile, agriculture, transportation, animal husbandry, construction and manufacturing sectors, which stand out with their high unregistered employment rates. When examining the employment of foreigners in the labor market in Türkiye, it would be more accurate to consider Syrians and other foreigners under separate headings. As a matter of fact, the fact that Syrians are more populous than all other foreigners has made it necessary to examine them as a separate social group.
- Syrians
According to the 2023-2025 report of the Regional Refugee and Resilience Plan Türkiye Country Section, prepared by the United Nations Refugee Agency, which deals with inter-agency coordination for refugees; while the employment participation rate of Syrian asylum seekers under "temporary protection" in Türkiye is 44% (81% male, 14% female), it is stated that approximately 10% of the 1 million asylum seekers who are considered to be in active employment are formally employed. As can be seen, the majority of foreigners in Türkiye continue their lives as a part of unregistered employment. The Ministry of Labor and Social Security has not yet published foreign work permit data for 2024. However, according to the Ministry of Labor and Social Security's 2023 statistics, the number of work permits issued to foreigners was 239,835. In addition, according to the same data, a total of 329,066 permits were issued in 2023, of which 239,835 (72.9%) were work permits, 76,707 (23.3%) were work permit exemption information forms issued to foreigners who will work in seasonal agriculture and animal husbandry, 12,090 (3.7%) were work permit exemptions, and 434 (0.1%) were work permits for foreigners working in free zones. As of 2023, the majority of those who received work permits are Syrians. 113,208 Syrians have been granted work permits.
The participation of foreigners in the Turkish labor market can also be monitored through the unregistered employment rates in the labor market. However, the participation of asylum seekers is not the only reason for the increase in the rate of unregistered employment in the labor market. Other reasons for the increase in the informal economy in Türkiye can be listed as the heavy tax burden of small and medium-sized companies, economic crises, the desire to resist competition, etc. In another study, it was stated that the mass migration movements from Syria to Türkiye after 2011, as well as the irregular migration movements towards Türkiye due to compulsory reasons such as war, conflict, persecution and human rights violations in other neighboring countries of Türkiye, were effective in the spread of unregistered employment in Türkiye.
Unfortunately, the accuracy and regularity of data on the sectoral distribution of foreign labor force poses a major problem. As stated in a study written by Ozan Önel and Zeynep Korkmaz for KAPDEM, even public institutions in Türkiye do not have a healthy data set on foreigners. Another possibility is that even if public institutions have healthy data sets, the sharing of these data sets with the public is generally very limited. This situation makes it difficult to comment on the participation of foreigners in labor markets. Nevertheless, a general picture can be presented within the framework of the information obtained from various open sources. According to the study conducted by Luis Pinedo Caro in 2020 according to the 2017 data of the Turkish Statistical Institute Household Labor Force Statistics, the sectoral distribution of the Syrian labor force can be listed as follows: manufacturing (48.2%), trade and accommodation (17.7%), construction (13.2%), agriculture (7.8%), other services (6.3%), education (2.7%), business activities (1.6%), transportation and communication (1.4%) and health (1.1%). According to a report published by the Confederation of Turkish Employer Associations (TİSK), the sectoral distribution of Syrians is as follows: textile (30.4%), construction (19.1%), manufacturing (16.3%), agriculture (7.5%), entrepreneurship (6.4%), services (5.7%), other (14.5%). In addition to the sectors mentioned above, there are also Syrians working as temporary/seasonal workers in various sectors, domestic servants, peddlers, garbage collecters, farm workers, shepherds, child or elderly caregivers.
The latest report prepared by TİSK on the employment of foreigners is dated February 2020. However, it can be said that there is no serious change in the sectoral employment rates of Syrians as of 2025. The fact that Syrians mostly work in the manufacturing, construction, trade and agriculture sectors seems to be valid today. The textile, clothing, leather and footwear sectors offer jobs to almost one in three Syrians. It can be easily stated that most of the Syrians working informally are people living in urban areas outside temporary accommodation centers (camps). Most of the Syrians already live outside the camps established by Türkiye. In many studies, it has been revealed that more than 30% of Syrian refugees who stay in camps with all their vital needs met by the state work outside during working hours (daytime) with permission from the relevant authorities.
As of May 2023, it was estimated that there were approximately one million Syrians in working life in Türkiye, but only about sixty thousand of Syrians had work permits. It can be said that most of the Syrians work in Istanbul (46%). It was stated that 9% of the remaining part was employed in Adana, 9% in Bursa, 7% in Gaziantep, 5% in Hatay, 4% in Konya, 3% in Şanlıurfa, 3% in Izmir and 14% in other provinces.
It can be said that women are quite disadvantaged in terms of the participation of asylum seekers in working life. Women asylum seekers, whose participation in the labor market is very low, cannot find a place in employment, so they have to work in daily jobs in labor-intensive sectors such as begging, cleaning, housework, and babysitting. According to a study conducted in 2020, while 71% of men in the Syrian refugee population between the ages of 15-64 are working, unfortunately, this rate was measured as 11.2% for Syrian women. The high fertility rate in the Syrian population and the fact that families have many children significantly reduce the rate of women's participation in the labor market. In addition, some obstacles arising from the cultural structure of Syrian society negatively affect women's participation in the labor market. The share of cultural factors in the low employment of women is undeniable; however, it can be said that the current working conditions also reinforce this situation. While unregistered employment stands out as a factor that keeps women away from business life in the long run, long working hours in sectors where Syrian refugees work intensively make it difficult for women to balance work and private life.
There are also tradesmen and craftsmen subject to international temporary protection status who open independent businesses; especially restaurants, dessert shops, patisseries, ready-to-wear, barbershops, coffee shops, jewellery. It has been determined that 53% of Syrians work for a local employer. On the other hand, 17% of Syrians are employed by a Syrian employer, while another 17% are thought to be self-employed. According to a study conducted by Caro, as of 2017, it was determined that Syrians worked for their employers for 4.4 years less than Turks. This statistic is striking in that it shows that Syrians change jobs more frequently than Turks.
A large part of the qualified or educated Syrians who migrated to Türkiye at the beginning of the Syrian Civil War migrated to the United States of America (USA), Canada, England, Germany and other countries of the European Union. It is not known whether asylum seekers in Türkiye, who have professional professions such as doctors, lawyers, engineers, teachers, academics, etc., can practice their own profession due to the lack of statistical information on this subject. It is estimated that roughly 10% of all Syrian workers have a higher education degree. It is stated that approximately 29% of educated Syrians can find a job in the professional category. It is thought that Syrians with university or higher education have more difficulty finding a job in Türkiye compared to Syrians with other education levels.
Unfortunately, child labour is very common among Syrian refugees. According to January 2023 data in Türkiye, 972,792 out of 1,372,792 refugee children were enrolled in school, but 400 thousand children could not be included in education due to early marriage, child labor, etc. There are many reasons why child labor is common among the Syrian population. The main reasons include children having to assume the role of family headship due to the Syrian Civil War or other natural reasons, extreme and widespread poverty, inability to adapt to education life due to the language barrier, more people having to work due to the large number of Syrian families, etc. Syrian child employment is also a preferred method by Turkish employers. Employers' preference for employing child asylum seekers is related to their capacity to learn the job and the language quickly compared to adults. While 66.1% of children under the age of 15 (4-15 years old) are employed, the majority of these children are boys who do not attend school.
- Other Foreigners
Although the intense residence of Syrians in Türkiye with temporary protection status and their access to the labor market are frequently on the agenda, the situation of the foreign workforce other than Syrians has been examined relatively less. Although most of the studies on the foreign workforce in Türkiye focus on Syrian refugees, the number and influence of foreigners from other countries are also significant. The foreign workforce other than Syrians in Türkiye has reached a significant size. This group closes the labor shortage both in the service sector and in production processes, but often works informally and precariously. This situation leads to damage the rights of not only migrant workers but also local workers; and puts the social protection system at risk.
The profile of foreigners other than Syrians in Türkiye is quite diverse. Iraqis belong to different communities: they consist of ethnic and religious groups such as Arabs, Kurds, Turkmens, Yazidis. Those coming from African countries generally came from countries such as Nigeria, Ghana, Senegal and Somalia and settled in Türkiye. These are concentrated in textile workshops, shoe production and street trade in cities such as Istanbul, Ankara and Izmir. This group, which also faces racial discrimination, has serious problems in both social cohesion and access to legal guarantees. Especially black African immigrants are exposed to racism by both employers and other employees in working life; this causes insecurity and isolation in the workplace. Foreigners from the European Union and other Western countries generally constitute the qualified workforce. They work as experts, managers or consultants in international companies. This group, on the other hand, constitutes the most privileged segment of the foreign workforce with its financial status and access to legal rights. Foreign experts and managers are all part of formal employment.
Foreigners of Central Asian origin, citizens of Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan and Kyrgyzstan, are one of the most concentrated labor force migrant groups in Türkiye. They generally work in service branches such as domestic services, child and elderly care, cleaning, as well as in small businesses. These women-dominated groups are mostly employed without a work permit and informally. It can be said that foreigners from Turkic republics are the group that experiences/feels the integration problem the least in Türkiye. As a result of a series of interviews with the Turks of Uzbekistan, it was determined that the Uzbeks who came to Türkiye for the first time did not feel alienated and learned Türkiye Turkish easily. It is known that Syrians and Afghans have a huge integration problem. People of East Asian origin (China, Vietnam, Indonesia) are employed for low wages in some organized industrial zones, although they are not frequently encountered in the labor market in Türkiye. Workers from India have turned into a tool used by some Turkish companies to break strikes. What happened between Lezita and Turkish workers in 2024 is the most concrete example of this situation. In order to break the strike started by Turkish workers working under Lezita after they could not get the raise they deserved, Lezita Food preferred to employ from India. Lezita, on the other hand, denied the allegation that Indian workers were used as a strikebreaker.
Sefine Shipyard, operating in the Altınova district of Yalova, is another facility that came to the fore with the employment of foreign workers. Especially according to the allegations reflected in local newspapers, the fact that workers from India started to work not only in Sefine Shipyard but also in Cemre Shipyard caused discomfort in both Turkish workers and local people. As a matter of fact, in a statement to the press by Rüstem İnce, Chairman of the Board of Directors of the Shipbuilding Contractors Association Vocational Training and Solidarity Association (GİMBİRDER), "Indian workers do the same job for minimum wage with 70 percent efficiency. The worker of our country, on the other hand, does the same job with 40 percent efficiency, although he receives a salary of 60 thousand TL. A worker who comes to the shipyard to work for 8 hours works an average of 4 hours. This needs to be questioned. It is necessary to look from the other side of the window" clearly shows why allegations of unregistered foreign employment in shipyards are increasing. Workers brought from India are used as a tool to convince Turkish workers of lower wage levels and to break strikes.
In addition, immigrants from Afghanistan, Iran and Iraq to Türkiye constitute the "permanent" foreign population that has been living in Türkiye for many years. Among the causes of migration, war, political oppression, sectarian discrimination, economic poverty and the search for personal security stand out. Türkiye has served these three countries both as a "transit country/transition to Europe" and as a "settlement country" in recent years. It should not be forgotten that a significant part of these asylum seekers are of working age. A significant portion of Afghans are refugees seeking a better life by escaping from the Taliban rule. The majority of Afghans coming to Türkiye are single men between the ages of 18-34. There are also part of Hazaras, who are ethnically discriminated against. Migrations mostly take place irregularly.
Afghans' participation in labor markets is generally through informal means. Agriculture and animal husbandry are sectors where Afghan labor is used intensively. A study conducted in Istanbul revealed that Afghan citizens spend a wide range of physical labor, from construction, repair, manufacturing and shepherding to transportation, car repair and scrap/paper collection. Among foreigners from Afghanistan, the proportion of those who have their own workplace seems to be quite low. It is generally stated that those who immigrated from Afghanistan to Türkiye in the early 1990s owned small shops, barbershops, bakeries and restaurants. However, a significant part of this population seems to have acquired Turkish citizenship at the same time. Afghans who own their own shops or run family businesses in Istanbul constitute 10 to 20 percent of the Afghan community in Istanbul, and the rest pursue daily work every day. It is not possible to make a clear inference about the ethnic composition of those coming from Afghanistan. However, Pashtuns, Afghans, Tajiks, Hazaras, Uzbeks and Turkmens are the main identity groups from Afghanistan. Afghans, along with Syrians, are the community with the most unregistered employment. According to a study published by the United Nations, it was found that unregistered employment was highest among Syrians and Afghans (62% for both).
Those from Afghanistan also work intensively in the construction sector. It is generally seen that asylum seekers from Syria, Afghanistan and Turkic Republics work intensively in the construction sector. However, there have been some allegations that Afghans and Uzbeks have been deported intensively recently. At this point, it can be said that Turkish employers are also satisfied with unregistered employment. It can be easily stated that Turkish employers have an ambivalent attitude. The main motive behind Turkish employers' desire to employ unregistered asylum seekers is that they see even the minimum wage demanded by Turkish workers as too much. In this period when the minimum wage is melting day by day in the face of inflation, it would not be wrong to state that the primary purpose of an employer who can say "... My experience for the last 5 years is that foreigners work more honestly and at a lower rate... is "to exploit foreign labor". In summary, the first source of motivation for those who have come to Türkiye from Afghanistan as asylum seekers for the last 10 years is economic. All participants in a survey involving Afghan asylum seekers stated that they sent most of their earnings to their families in Afghanistan. The main reason for the money sent is either to meet the basic needs of the family members left behind or to pay the bride price. Naturally, this situation makes asylum seekers vulnerable to exploitation by Turkish employers.
A significant portion of those who came to Türkiye from Iran are political opponents, ethnic/religious minorities (e.g. Kurds, Baha'is), women's rights defenders and LGBTI+ individuals. The proportion of educated individuals within this group is high. It is known that a significant part of Iranians are also part of unregistered employment. There are Iranians who want to buy or rent a house in Türkiye in order to obtain a residence permit. For this reason, some Iranians living in Türkiye provide real estate and consultancy services for their citizens who want to obtain a residence permit. It can be said that unregistered real estate and consultancy services have emerged as a different sector for Iranians. In addition, it is seen that a sector for the provision of residence, citizenship and visa services is spreading among Iranians. On the Telegram digital platform, which is the most used by Iranian immigrants, consultancy services are advertised in many areas such as obtaining a residence permit, obtaining a work permit, establishing a company, interpreting, providing notary services, recommending a lawyer, obtaining citizenship, renting and buying a house, obtaining a visa, insurance, providing education process consultancy, providing investment consultancy, obtaining a driver's license, and the informal service sector to over ten thousand people. Food supply, medicine supply services, beauty, personal care, entertainment, banking and cash transfer transactions are among the other sectors in which Iranian refugees work. At least some of the Iranian refugees are interested in different lines of business than the sectors in which other foreigners work.
Foreigners other than Syrians also think that there are no safe job opportunities for them in Türkiye. In particular, Iranians (79%), Afghans (74%) and women (62%) stated this at a higher level than other groups. In addition, 40% of foreigners stated that they do not feel safe at work. This proportion was highest among Iranians and Afghans (50% and 48% respectively reported feeling unsafe). The prevalence of unregistered employment and the fact that foreigners often work in short-term jobs reinforce the beliefs that they do not feel safe in the workplace or that there are no safe job opportunities. The number of foreigners other than Syrians who have a work permit is very low. In 2023, only 6,204 Afghan citizens were granted work permits. The reports titled Foreign Work Permits Statistics published on the website of the Ministry of Labor and Social Security include the number of work permits issued to foreigners and their rates varying by country. Data for 2024 has not yet been published.
- Conclusion
Foreigners' participation in employment in Türkiye appears as a multifaceted issue. It is obvious that foreign employment should be evaluated together with its positive and negative dimensions. Instead of opposing foreign employment in Türkiye altogether, it is obvious that some measures should be taken and some public policies should be developed in order to prevent Turkish workers from losing their rights. However, it can be easily said that Turkish employers benefit from unregistered foreign employment, especially to convince Turks of lower wage levels and precarious working conditions. This situation paves the way for the exploitation of both Turkish workers and foreigners. Unfortunately, the government of the Republic of Türkiye remains silent in the face of unregistered foreign employment. The fact that production inputs are becoming more and more costly explains this silence of the government. The Republic of Türkiye is primarily obliged to protect its own citizens. Regarding unregistered foreign employment however, it can be easily said that the government mostly protects the capitalist class.
In some sectors, such as tourism, the Ministry of Labor and Social Security facilitated foreign employment by amending the Work Permit Application Evaluation Criteria in 2024, as skilled labor could not be obtained from domestic markets. However, instead of such short-term solutions, alternative education or employment policies should be developed, such as tourism vocational high schools and universities entering into close cooperation with sector representatives or making applied education more systematic. As a matter of fact, citizens in Antalya stated that unemployment has increased due to foreign employment. This is true not only for tourism but also for many other sectors. It is seen that similar complaints are rising in the transportation, agriculture, animal husbandry, construction, manufacturing, ready-to-wear and textile sectors. In order to produce a sound public policy on foreign employment, it is necessary to conduct up-to-date research as soon as possible and to compile data sets that will reveal the latest situation of the sectors. The compilation of data sets can be achieved through joint or separate studies by public institutions, private sector stakeholders, universities, non-governmental organizations and international organizations.
Compiling data sets and clearly determining the working conditions of foreigners will also help Türkiye to put forward an accurate public policy towards employment and production. At the same time, it is thought that the incentives provided to producers should be considered on this basis. Employers who give Turkish workers their rights but apply for foreign employment if they need it, provided that they are registered, should be supported with various incentives. Instead of turning a blind eye to unregistered foreign employment, the Republic of Türkiye is obliged to determine from which sectors skilled or unskilled foreign employment is needed after developing effective employment, education and production policies. In this way, Turkish workers will not be victimized, and foreign labor power and Turks will not come face to face. In addition, in order for Türkiye to achieve a sustainable economic development trend, it is directly related to identifying and supporting priority sectors and determining the workforce needs in a healthy way.
Within the framework of the above-mentioned events, it is thought that the foreign labor force in Türkiye should be evaluated separately on a sectoral basis. The quality of skilled and unskilled labor needed by different sectors can also be revealed in this way. In addition, efforts to reach a certain percentage of Turkish labor force in the sectors mentioned above need to be accelerated. Some sectors have become almost dependent on foreign labor. It is extremely important to prevent this situation for both economic and national security reasons. However, as stated before, it is thought that employment policies that prioritize Turkish citizens should be supported by registered foreign labor instead of completely preventing foreign employment. Separately addressing the sectors where foreign labor is intense is among the aims of our article series. In the third part of the article series, foreign employment in the manufacturing sector, the impact of foreign labor force on Turkish workers, the positive and negative aspects of this employment in terms of the manufacturing sector will be discussed and some suggestions for incentives and employment policies in the manufacturing sector will be presented.
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